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วันอาทิตย์ที่ 19 กุมภาพันธ์ พ.ศ. 2555

Ch.13: Copyright and Fair Use


Chapter 13: Copyright and Fair Use




One of the rights accorded to the owner of copyright is the right to reproduce or to authorize others to reproduce the work in copies or phonorecords. This right is subject to certain limitations found in sections 107 through 118 of the copyright law (title 17, U. S. Code). One of the more important limitations is the doctrine of “fair use.” The doctrine of fair use has developed through a substantial number of court decisions over the years and has been codified in section 107 of the copyright law.
Section 107 contains a list of the various purposes for which the reproduction of a particular work may be considered fair, such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Section 107 also sets out four factors to be considered in determining whether or not a particular use is fair:
    1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes
    2. The nature of the copyrighted work
    3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole
    4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the copyrighted work
The distinction between fair use and infringement may be unclear and not easily defined. There is no specific number of words, lines, or notes that may safely be taken without permission. Acknowledging the source of the copyrighted material does not substitute for obtaining permission.
The 1961 Report of the Register of Copyrights on the General Revision of the U.S. Copyright Law cites examples of activities that courts have regarded as fair use: “quotation of excerpts in a review or criticism for purposes of illustration or comment; quotation of short passages in a scholarly or technical work, for illustration or clarification of the author’s observations; use in a parody of some of the content of the work parodied; summary of an address or article, with brief quotations, in a news report; reproduction by a library of a portion of a work to replace part of a damaged copy; reproduction by a teacher or student of a small part of a work to illustrate a lesson; reproduction of a work in legislative or judicial proceedings or reports; incidental and fortuitous reproduction, in a newsreel or broadcast, of a work located in the scene of an event being reported.”
Copyright protects the particular way authors have expressed themselves. It does not extend to any ideas, systems, or factual information conveyed in a work.
The safest course is always to get permission from the copyright owner before using copyrighted material. The Copyright Office cannot give this permission.
When it is impracticable to obtain permission, use of copyrighted material should be avoided unless the doctrine of fair use would clearly apply to the situation. The Copyright Office can neither determine if a certain use may be considered fair nor advise on possible copyright violations. If there is any doubt, it is advisable to consult an attorney.

FL-102, Reviewed November 2009
U.S. Copyright Office
101 Independence Avenue SE
Washington, DC 20559-6000
(202) 707-3000



Reference:
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Ch.12: Knowledge Management System



Knowledge Management System

Knowledge Management System (KM System) refers to a (generally generated via or through to an IT based program/department or section) system for managing knowledge in organizations for supporting creation, capture, storage and dissemination of information. It can comprise a part (neither necessary nor sufficient) of a Knowledge Management initiative.
The idea of a KM system is to enable employees to have ready access to the organization's documented base of facts, sources of information, and solutions. For example a typical claim justifying the creation of a KM system might run something like this: an engineer could know the metallurgical composition of an alloy that reduces sound in gear systems. Sharing this information organization wide can lead to more effective engine design and it could also lead to ideas for new or improved equipment.

Knowledge Management framework Ref: School Of management Studies, NIT Calicut
A KM system could be any of the following:
  1. Document based i.e. any technology that permits creation/management/sharing of formatted documents such as Lotus Notes,SharePoint, web, distributed databases etc.
  2. Ontology/Taxonomy based: these are similar to document technologies in the sense that a system of terminologies (i.e. ontology) are used to summarize the document e.g. Author, Subj, Organization etc. as in DAML & other XML based ontologies
  3. Based on AI technologies which use a customized representation scheme to represent the problem domain.
  4. Provide network maps of the organization showing the flow of communication between entities and individuals
  5. Increasingly social computing tools are being deployed to provide a more organic approach to creation of a KM system.
KMS systems deal with information (although Knowledge Management as a discipline may extend beyond the information centric aspect of any system) so they are a class of information system and may build on, or utilize other information sources. Distinguishing features of a KMS can include:
  1. Purpose: a KMS will have an explicit Knowledge Management objective of some type such as collaboration, sharing good practice or the like.
  2. Context: One perspective on KMS would see knowledge is information that is meaningfully organized, accumulated and embedded in a context of creation and application.
  3. Processes: KMS are developed to support and enhance knowledge-intensive processes, tasks or projects of e.g., creation, construction, identification, capturing, acquisition, selection, valuation, organization, linking, structuring, formalization, visualization, transfer, distribution, retention, maintenance, refinement, revision, evolution, accessing, retrieval and last but not least the application of knowledge, also called the knowledge life cycle.
  4. Participants: Users can play the roles of active, involved participants in knowledge networks and communities fostered by KMS, although this is not necessarily the case. KMS designs are held to reflect that knowledge is developed collectively and that the “distribution” of knowledge leads to its continuous change, reconstruction and application in different contexts, by different participants with differing backgrounds and experiences.
  5. Instruments: KMS support KM instruments, e.g., the capture, creation and sharing of the codifiable aspects of experience, the creation of corporate knowledge directories, taxonomies or ontologies, expertise locators, skill management systems, collaborative filtering and handling of interests used to connect people, the creation and fostering of communities or knowledge networks.
A KMS offers integrated services to deploy KM instruments for networks of participants, i.e. active knowledge workers, in knowledge-intensive business processes along the entire knowledge life cycle. KMS can be used for a wide range of cooperative, collaborative, adhocracy and hierarchy communities, virtual organizations, societies and other virtual networks, to manage media contents; activities, interactions and work-flows purposes; projects; works, networks, departments, privileges, roles, participants and other active users in order to extract and generate new knowledge and to enhance, leverage and transfer in new outcomes of knowledge providing new services using new formats and interfaces and different communication channels.
The term KMS can be associated to Open Source Software, and Open Standards, Open Protocols and Open Knowledge licenses, initiatives and policies.

Benefits & Issues of knowledge management

Some of the advantages claimed for KM systems are:
  1. Sharing of valuable organizational information throughout organizational hierarchy.
  2. Can avoid re-inventing the wheel, reducing redundant work.
  3. May reduce training time for new employees
  4. Retention of Intellectual Property after the employee leaves if such knowledge can be codified.
  5. time management
Knowledge Sharing remains a challenging issue for knowledge management, and while there is no clear agreement barriers may include time issues for knowledge works, the level of trust, lack of effective support technologies and culture (Jennex 2008).

References

This article was originally based on material from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, which is licensed under the GFDL.



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วันอาทิตย์ที่ 12 กุมภาพันธ์ พ.ศ. 2555

Ch.11 Information Systems

7-Eleven Franchise Requirements

by Miranda Brookins, Demand Media



7-Eleven, a convenience store established in 1927, offers aspiring entrepreneurs an opportunity to be a a part of their successful business model by becoming franchisees. They began franchising in the United States in 1964. As of 2010, there are more than 6,800 7-Eleven stores in the U.S. and Canada and more 36,000 stores worldwide. They have a strict set of requirements in place prospective franchisees must follow before being granted a store.

Submit Franchise Application

Prospective 7-Eleven franchisees must submit a franchise application. Applications are available on the 7-Eleven website. Before submitting a request for an application, 7-Eleven asks four questions about your age, residency, experience and credit score.

Ensure Age and Experience

Applicants must be at least 21 years of age to be eligible to become a franchisee for 7-Eleven. In addition to an age requirement, 7-Eleven prefers that their franchisees have retail, management or customer service experience with a company within the United States.

Reveal Financial Standing

7-Eleven expects its franchisee to be in good financial standing. Applicants need to have a credit score of at least 700 and cannot have filed bankruptcy within the last seven years.

Confirm United States Residency

Although 7-Eleven doesn't require applicants to be United States citizens, they do require applicants provide proof that they have permanent residency in the United States. If you cannot provide proof, your application for a 7-Eleven franchise cannot be approved.

Interview With Sales Manager

If your initial application is accepted, 7-Eleven will contact you to schedule an interview with one of their sales managers. The sales manager will review the 7-Eleven franchise program requirements, as well as The Franchise Disclosure Document. Franchise, an online resource for individuals interested in franchises, cites that there are 23 categories of information franchisers must provide potential franchisees before the final franchise agreement is presented for signing.

Take Tests And Assessments

Prospective franchisees are required to complete a franchise assessment test and a franchise disclosure test before moving onto the next phase of the application process. Those who pass the assessments can move forward to selecting a store.

Pick a Store

The location of a business is important to its success, so 7-Eleven shows prospective franchisees potential locations in their areas. You can visit each available store to get an idea of surrounding businesses and the community.

Create Business Plan And Budget

Whether you own a franchise or build a business from the ground up, business planning is an essential step in the process. 7-Eleven works with prospective franchisees to develop a business plan and a budget for their businesses. With a business plan and budget in place, the next step is a final interview with a manager in your area.

Sign Agreement

One of the final steps in becoming a 7-Eleven franchise owner signing the franchise agreement. You'll also get guided through the process of applying for necessary licenses and paying franchisee fees. 7-Eleven requires franchisees to pay a one-time initial franchise fee, which may range between $50,000 and $350,000. The fee is based on location and the previous gross profits of the location, if applicable. The initial fee includes a down payment on supplies, inventory, permits, licenses, bonds and startup cash for the register. Additional one-time fees ranging from $10,000 to $40,000 may be added for locations that have gas stations. Franchisees who elect to purchase stores from existing owners, must pay the fee to the owner, as well as 7-Eleven's franchisee fees. After the initial one-time fee, you pay royalties based on your store's gross profit. The calculation is net sales receipts minus the wholesale costs paid for the merchandise sold.

Get Trained And Hire Staff

7-Eleven provides franchisees with training to help them operate, manage and market their businesses. After your receive training, you can begin to hire and train staff for your store.
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About the Author

Miranda Brookins is a marketing professional who has over seven years of experience in copywriting, direct-response and Web marketing, publications management and business communications. She has a bachelor's degree in business and marketing from Towson University and is working on a master's degree in publications design at University of Baltimore.
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